Ecologia Balkanica

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https://doi.uni-plovdiv.bg/handle/store/4

p-ISSN: 1314-0213 / e-ISSN: 1313-9940

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Taxonomic Composition and Environmental Drivers of Phytoplankton in Earthen Fish Ponds (Bulgaria)
(Plovdiv University Press "Paisii Hilendarski", 2025-06-29) Dochin, Kostadin; Ivanova, Angelina; Ilieva, Lena; Iliev, Ivan
This study presents a comparative analysis of phytoplankton taxonomic structure and its relationship with environmental factors in earthen aquaculture ponds located in Plovdiv and Trivoditsi, Bulgaria, during the period May–September 2024. A total of 114 phytoplankton taxa were identified across six phyla, with Chlorophyta and Cyanoprokaryota dominating the bio-mass. The results showed a pronounced shift towards higher phytoplankton biomass (PhB up to 60.3 mg L⁻¹) and chlorophyll-a concentrations (up to 133 μg L⁻¹) in the Trivoditsi ponds, associated with blooms of green algae and cyanobacteria. For the first time, the invasive and potentially toxic species Raphidiopsis raciborskii was recorded in Bulgarian aquaculture ponds, contributing up to 15.5% of the phytoplankton biomass during bloom periods. Environmental parameters such as elevated ammonium, phosphate, and COD were positively correlated with increased PhB, chlorophyll-a, and total viable counts (TVC) of heterotrophic bacteria. Redundancy analysis (RDA) highlighted the influence of nutrient enrichment and organic load on the biological variables. The observed co-variation between PhB and TVC suggests the presence of a dynamic microbial loop, where intensive primary production supports hetero-trophic bacterial growth. These findings confirm the role of eutrophic conditions and nutrient availability in shaping phytoplankton and microbial communities in earthen ponds used for aquaculture. This study provides new insights into the ecological interactions in such systems, contributing to future strategies for water quality management and sustainable aquaculture practices.
Seasonal characteristics of precipitation in the region of NAO Rozhen, Bulgaria, for the period 2023—2025
(Plovdiv University Press "Paisii Hilendarski", 2025-06-29) Paskaleva, Vesselina; Terziyski, Atanas; Kochev, Nikolay; Tenev, Stoyan; Petrov, Nikola
The article presents high-resolution observations of winter precipitation in the region surrounding the National Astronomical Observatory (NAO) Rozhen, Bulgaria, at an altitude of 1,730 meters above sea level, during the 2023–2025 period. Utilizing an array of advanced meteorological instruments, including the OTT Pluvio²L, Parsivel² disdrometer, WS100 radar sensor, and SHM31 snow depth sensor, we captured detailed in-situ data on precipitation type, intensity, and duration. The integrated sensor system enabled the classification and quantification of various precipitation events such as snow, rain, drizzle, and hail with minute-level resolution. The study features multiple precipitation-related variables, including total amount, intensity, and precipitation type. Seasonal and daily variations in precipitation behavior were documented, with snow dominating the winter period but often accompanied by mixed-phase events. The dataset supports enhanced understanding of precipitation dynamics in mountainous terrain and offers potential for model calibration, climate profiling, and natural air purification assessments. All data is provided in FAIR-compliant formats to support further research and environmental monitoring efforts.
Tracking Volcanic Atmospheric Waves: Insights from the 2022 Hunga Tonga Eruption observed with an Open Sensor Network in Bulgaria
(Plovdiv University Press "Paisii Hilendarski", 2025-06-29) Terziyski, Atanas; Tancheva, Gergana; Jeliazkov, Vedrin; Kochev, Nikolay; Paskaleva, Vesselina
The January 2022 eruption of Hunga Tonga was one of the most powerful volcanic events of the modern era, generating a vertical plume that reached over 50 kilometres above Earth’s surface. The initial explosion, followed by a high-speed atmospheric jet, triggered waves that circled the globe multiple times. The effects of the eruption on Bulgarian territory were detected and analysed using data from the METER.AC network, which includes a wide array of custom-designed and assembled ground monitoring stations, enhanced by a set of certified professional weather stations. These stations utilise the Internet of Things (IoT) paradigm to collect data from a variety of sensors and provide open access to the recorded measurements. We have developed a suite of algorithms to process the collected data through several methods, including semi-automated detection of wave minima and maxima, Fourier spectral analysis, and the integration of data from nearby instruments. This approach enabled us to identify and analyse the first two atmospheric waves that reached Bulgaria and to calculate their average propagation speeds—301 m/s and 315 m/s, respectively. This research highlights the significance and capability of the citizen science network, METER.AC, in providing valuable data for understanding global phenomena, particularly large-scale volcanic events. It also highlights the potential of IoT-based systems and data processing algorithms in advancing atmospheric research and environmental monitoring.
Polyphenol-containing water-soluble bio-composite films as alternative food packaging materials
(Plovdiv University Press "Paisii Hilendarski", 2025-06-29) Grigorov, Aleksandar; Viraneva, Asya
Historically, the development of better food preservation techniques has been one of the main factors in the prosperity and health of any human population, and with the exponential rise in food demand leads science in search of eco-friendlier solutions. One such path is the development of water-soluble biodegradable coatings based on easily accessible and abundant natural polymer materials. As a common byproduct of the food industry, corn zein is one of the most promising biopolymers for food packaging, offering excellent barrier properties. Its main drawback – poor mechanical strength – can be mitigated with the addition of other biodegradable polymers that would result in the creation of bio-composite materials with controllable properties. Further improvements of such biopolymer coatings can be achieved with the addition of other materials, such as different polyphenols, that may improve their antioxidant properties. The presented paper investigates water-soluble bio-composite films, created by dissolving equal parts zein and hydroxypropyl methylcellulose in ethanol solution (70:30 ethanol to water ratio). Polyethylene glycol was used as plasticiser in all samples. Two different polyphenols (quercetin and curcumin) were incorporated in the bio-composites at a concentration of 2 mg/cm2. The mechanical properties of the created films were studied with a use of Universal Testing Machine (Lloyd Instrument). The surface morphology was investigated with scanning electron microscopy and the surface free energy was determined with the use of the sessile drop method. The dependence of the normalized surface potentials on the storage time of the charged substrates was studied. Parameters, important for food preservation, such as water vapor permeability, were investigated.
Air quality control in Plovdiv, Bulgaria: the citizens' awareness. Results from a pilot quantitative study
(Plovdiv University Press "Paisii Hilendarski", 2025-06-29) Mitev, Tihomir; Tchalakov, Ivan; Keskinova, Donka; Parapanov, Petar
Air pollution is a leading risk factor for individual and public health. It is a major environmental stressor responsible for hundreds of thousands of premature deaths in Europe every year. Monitoring and controlling air quality is about the importance of managing public health, as is ensuring people are aware of the dangers of polluted air and getting them involved in the issue. The article presents a summary of the results and data analysis from a pilot study conducted in May-June 2025 on the awareness, interest, personal engagement, and assessment of citizens in Plovdiv (Bulgaria) – one of the most polluted cities in Europe – regarding the control of air quality in the city.
Tautomerism influence on QSAR/QSPR modelling of ecotoxicity and physicochemical properties of chemical compounds
(Plovdiv University Press "Paisii Hilendarski", 2025-06-29) Kochev, Nikolay; Paskaleva, Vesselina; Jeliazkova, Nina
The OECD guidelines for QSAR/QSPR (Quantitative Structure Activity/Property Relationship) modelling and ecotoxicity testing play a significant role in ecological studies by providing standardised, scientifically validated methods to assess the environmental impact of chemicals. Laboratory and terrain tests are combined with QSAR/QSPR models, ensuring consistency, reliability and support for regulatory acceptance, enabling screening and prioritisa-tion, global harmonisation and promotion of alternatives to animal testing. Tautomerism is a fundamental structural phenomenon that can significantly influence the predictive reliability of QSAR/QSPR models used for assessing ecotoxicity and physicochemical properties of chemical compounds. We examine how tautomeric variation affects molecular descriptors, data curation, and model performance. We propose practical incorporation of tautomer information into the model development and cheminformatics pipelines to enhance predictive accuracy and regulatory applicability. By generating exhaustive tautomeric ensembles, our approach sup-ports QSAR/QSPR modelling in line with OECD guidelines for regulatory ecotoxicity endpoints, contributing to the development of robust in silico predictions. By addressing the challenges posed by tautomerism, this work advances the use of computational methods in sustainable chemical safety assessment and supports innovation in non-testing approaches.
Protected Areas as a Context for Effective Science Communication and the Development of Sustainability Competences
(Plovdiv University Press "Paisii Hilendarski", 2025-06-29) Epitropova, Ani
This study analyses how Bulgarian protected areas can serve as platforms for meaningful science communication and as dynamic contexts for developing sustainability competences and supporting environmental conservation efforts. It focuses on how pre-service education students carry out science communication using digital tools and engage with ecological knowledge, how they interpret and communicate information from primary sources related to Bulgarian protected areas, and to what extent this process supports the development of sustainability competences in line with the GreenComp framework. The analysis covers 49 students’ projects focused on protected areas, developed within a structured educational model specifically designed for the study. The analytical approach focuses on three dimensions: (1) scientific accuracy and completeness of the ecological content—including accurate identification of systematic groups, characterized species of flora and fauna, specific ecosystems, and threats; (2) strategies used to communicate scientific information to non-specialist audiences; and (3) the extent to which students demonstrate key sustainability competences, aligned with the GreenComp framework, including: sustainability knowledge, systems thinking, critical thinking, personal and collective responsibility, collaboration, and initiative. The findings reveal competent patterns in information selection, use of visual and emotional tools, and consistent use of scientifically accurate language. Most students present the characteristics of the protected areas in a detailed, engaging, and scientifically sound manner, demonstrating contextual awareness of local environmental challenges and conservation priorities. These patterns support the use of GreenComp not only as a policy instrument but also as a useful analytical tool for measuring ecological awareness and engagement in academic settings. The study contributes to understanding how science communication and competence development intersect in educational settings, positioning future teachers as key mediators between ecology and society.
Applying DNA barcoding and ecological DNA approaches for biodiversity monitoring in aquatic ecosystems
(Plovdiv University Press "Paisii Hilendarski", 2025-06-29) Apostolova, Elena; Iliev, Iliya
Molecular ecology is reshaping traditional perspectives on natural systems by integrating advanced molecular techniques into ecological research. This integration offers novel insights into long-standing ecological questions and supports the development of more effective conservation strategies and sustainable resource management. The advent of DNA barcoding, which enables precise species identification using short, standardised genomic regions, has significantly improved taxonomic resolution, particularly for taxa with ambiguous or unresolved classifications. In parallel, environmental DNA (eDNA) analysis is revolutioni-sing biodiversity monitoring by facilitating the detection of organisms directly from environmental samples, without the need for physical specimen collection. Together, DNA barcoding and eDNA represent a powerful, non-invasive, and efficient toolkit for studying biodiversity, especially in aquatic ecosystems, where traditional survey methods are often constrained. This review synthesises recent advances in the application of these molecular approaches to aquatic biodiversity monitoring, with a focus on their underlying principles, practical applications, methodological challenges, and prospects.
Documentation of the Smooth Snake, Coronella austriaca (Serpentes: Colubridae) from Euboea Island, Greece
(Plovdiv University Press "Paisii Hilendarski", 2025-06-28) Strachinis, Ilias; Kalogiannis, Stamatios; Katsiyiannis, Philippos; Kouelis, Charis; Stefanopoulos, Platon; Tzoras, Elias
Euboea, the second-largest island of Greece, supports a diverse range of habitats and remains faunistically understudied, despite its proximity to the mainland and the capital of Greece, Athens. We document the first verified records of the Smooth Snake (Coronella austriaca) on Euboea, based on two individuals observed on Mounts Xirovouni and Dirfi. The species is known in Greece only from mainland areas and has also been historically reported from Samothrace Island based on a single museum specimen. The presence of C. austriaca on Euboea expands the known insular distribution of this predominantly mainland species. Our findings highlight the biogeographical importance of Euboea and underscore the need for further surveys to understand better the distribution, habitat use, and conservation status of C. austriaca, and possibly other overlooked reptile species on the island.
Analysis of perennial temperature variations and behavioral ecology of insects for the region of the city of Plovdiv, Bulgaria
(Plovdiv University Press "Paisii Hilendarski", 2025-06-20) Ivanov, Plamen
Climate change is significantly affecting both natural ecosystems and human-managed systems on a global scale. The stressors associated with the Anthropocene are diverse and intricate, including invasive species, habitat degradation, pesticide application, and pollution. However, none of these stressors are as pervasive or interconnected with various other factors as climate change. Consequently, understanding the effects of anthropogenic climate change on natural systems is a paramount challenge for environmental sciences in the 21st century. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) defines climate change as “a shift in the climate's state that can be recognized (using statistical methods) by alterations in the average and/or the variability of its attributes, persisting for a long time, generally for decades or longer”. This definition encompasses any changes in climate over time, whether resulting from natural variations or human-induced activities. Climate-related variables, such as temperature, water availability, and carbon dioxide levels, critically affect the characteristics of ecosystems that facilitate food production, including both freshwater and marine environments, agriculture, and forestry. Any fluctuations in these variables present a risk to global food security. This research, therefore, is crucial in understanding and mitigating this risk.
Evaluation of the water quality of the rivers used for the irrigation of the Korçë field, Albania
(Plovdiv University Press "Paisii Hilendarski", 2025-06-27) Maho, Adrian; Ajҫe, Sulltane; Mero, Gjergji; Skenderasi, Besnik
Water from multiple sources, including rivers, streams, springs, lakes, irrigation reservoirs and groundwater is used to irrigate agricultural crops. Crop productivity depends not only on sufficient amount of water, but also on its good quality. The quality of irrigation water affects not only plant productivity but also product quality and food safety. The study conducted a dynamic assessment of the water quality of two main rivers, the Devoll River and the Dunavec River, which are used for the irrigation of the Korçë field, Albania. The study evidenced the impact that human activity has on water pollution of these various chemicals during the use of water for family purposes, the disposal of waste into rivers, the treatment of agricultural plants with pesticides, and the cutting down of forests. The analyses of physico-chemical and biological indicators were performed according to standard methods in the Agro-food laboratory of the Faculty of Agriculture, Fan Noli University, Korçë. The indicators resulting from the analysis were compared with the standards set by FAO for irrigation water quality and EU Regulation 2020/741. The pollution of the ecosystem of these rivers has led deterioration in their quality indicators. Interventions in wastewater treatment, reforestation, the introduction of biological methods for combating diseases and pests, and the ecological awareness of communities are contributions towards improving the quality of river waters.
Study of the agrobiodiversity of the Lotus corniculatus L. grassland under mountain conditions after the application of organic fertilizers
(Plovdiv University Press "Paisii Hilendarski", 2025-06-23) Churkova, Katerina
In a research experiment, carried out in 2020-2023 in the Research Institute of Mountain Stockbreeding and Agriculture-Troyan, on the grassland of Lotus corniculatus L., variety "Targovishte 1", the influence of fertilization with the organic fertilizers Blago 5 in doses of 300 and 600 ml/da (varieties 2 and 3) and Fertileader Axis in doses of 500 and 1000 ml/da (varieties 4 and 5) was tested in comparison with an unfertilized control (variety 1). Biodiversity of the untreated crop and agrobiodiversity by botanical groups and weed species composition were studied. The ecological effect of organic fertilization and its impact on the floristic composition of the grassland were determined. The percentage and species contribution of the main botanical groups (grasses, legumes, motley grasses) in the Lotus corniculatus L. grassland changed positively under the influence of fertilization, and the group of motley grasses including plants from different botanical families. There was an increased presence of the shade grass species Lotus corniculatus L. and a reduced number and percentage of representatives of motley grasses in the formed above-ground mass after treatment with the two biofertilizers. Fertileader Axis biofertilizer at a dose of 1000 ml/da proved to be the most effective, stimulating the development of Lotus corniculatus L. in the stand by 82.6% and reducing the number of weedy species (13.6%). The resulting higher relative proportion of Lotus corniculatus L. suggests better quality indicators of grass biomass. The results obtained define the applied biofertilizers as an effective agrotechnical practice, leading to an increase in the presence of economically important grass species and a decrease in the proportion of low-productive variable grasses.
Blood biochemistry of White Storks (Ciconia ciconia) across Bulgaria: baseline data for conservation and rehabilitation
(Plovdiv University Press "Paisii Hilendarski", 2025-06-30) Petrov, Rusko
We obtained 175 blood samples from wild White Storks in Bulgaria, and determined the values of 18 indicators - alanine transaminase, albumin, alkaline phosphatase, amylase, aspartate transaminase, calcium, chloride, cholesterol, creatine kinase, creatinine, blood glucose, lactate dehydrogenase, magnesium, phosphorus, total bilirubin, total protein, triglycerides and uric acid. In this research, we compared those results with regards to the location from which the birds came from - we conditionally separated Bulgaria into four geographical regions, and to their age. We found statistically significant differences in two parameters - albumin, between northwestern and northeastern populations, and creatinine, between northeastern and southeastern populations. There was also a statistically significant difference in the albumin values between juvenile and adult storks, which we found to be decreasing with age.
Assessment of the quality of groundwater for irrigation in the municipality of Suharekë, Republic of Kosovo
(Plovdiv University Press "Paisii Hilendarski", 2025-04-28) Çadraku, Hazir; Shala, Agron; Xhafa, Sokol
This study evaluates groundwater quality for irrigation in Suharekë, Kosovo. Sixteen well samples were analyzed for cations (Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+), anions (Cl-, NO3-, SO42-, HCO3-, CO32-), and irrigation quality indices (SAR, Na%, KR, MAR, PI, PS, RSC). Results indicate groundwater suitability for irrigation, with SAR (excellent), SP (excellent), KR (suitable), MAR (62.5% suitable, 37.5% unsuitable), PI (suitable), PS (excellent-good), and RSC supporting usability.
Soil carbon and nitrogen stocks under anthropogenic influence: A case study in European beech forests of Central Balkan Mountains (Stara Planina), Bulgaria
(Plovdiv University Press "Paisii Hilendarski", 2025-06-03) Kirova, Lora; Stoeva, Lora; Stoyanov, Todor
Understanding how forest management practices influence soil carbon and nitrogen dynamics is crucial for sustainable ecosystem functioning and climate mitigation. This study investigates the effects of thinning on soil organic carbon (SOC) and total nitrogen (TN) stocks in temperate European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) forests in the Central Balkan Mountains of Bulgaria. Fieldwork was conducted in six forest districts using a replicated plot design with three thinning intensities: unmanaged (0%), moderate (10–15%), and higher (20–25%). Soil samples were collected from three depth intervals (0–10, 10–20, and 20–30 cm) and analyzed for SOC, TN, and related properties following standardized laboratory protocols. Results showed that SOC and TN concentrations decreased consistently with depth across all treatments. While higher thinning intensity was associated with modest reductions in subsoil SOC and TN, the overall stocks to 30 cm depth did not differ significantly between managed and control plots. The data suggest that brown forest soils (Cambisols) exhibit strong resilience to moderate thinning, likely due to conservative harvesting practices, stable canopy structure, and the retention of organic inputs. These findings highlight that moderate-intensity thinning, as applied under Bulgarian forestry regulations, can be compatible with the preservation of soil carbon and nitrogen pools. The study emphasizes the importance of site-specific management and long-term monitoring to ensure soil sustainability under changing climatic and land-use conditions.
Study of basic indicative parameters for soil health in beech forests of Petrohan area, Western Bulgaria
(Plovdiv University Press "Paisii Hilendarski", 2025-05-22) Petrova, Kameliya
Soils in forest areas are one of the most vulnerable terrestrial ecosystems, which are subject to sensitive changes because of anthropogenic impact and global climate changes. Studying the main soil indicators on which soil health depends is essential to setting realistic goals for its maintenance and/or improvement. The study focuses on assessment of basic indicative soil parameters, which are directly related to the health status of the soil. A total of 10 soil profiles of Dystric Cambisols from Western Bulgaria were studied. The soil profiles were assessed as shallow. The average depth of A horizon was 11 cm. Very low pH values were established in A (3.7 to 5.3) and Bw horizons (3.8 to 4.7) of the soils which indicate ongoing acidification processes in soil depth. The studied soils were assessed as porous with ideal bulk density values. They were moderately (144 t/ha) to very well stocked (665 t/ha) with humus and total nitrogen, but poor on available potassium and phosphorous. All the soils were assessed as unsaturated with bases. Their base saturation (BS) values ranging between 5% and 34%. The obtained results showed that low soil depth, acidic soil reaction, low BS, and cation exchange capacity (CEC) are the main prerequisites for the deterioration of soil health. The studied soils are sensitive to acidification processes, which can lead to poor soil health status and, therefore, to soil degradation. It is highly recommended to continue the monitoring on the health status of these soils, because forest soils are becoming more and more susceptible to degradation processes.
Analysis of medicinal plants from the regions of the Strandzha mountain and southern Black Sea Coast, Bulgaria
(Plovdiv University Press "Paisii Hilendarski", 2025-05-07) Todorov, Krasimir; Stoyanov, Plamen; Mladenov, Rumen; Gyuzeleva, Donika; Radoukova, Tzenka; Selyami, Dzhansu; Zhelyazkova, SImona; Mladenova, Tsvetelina
This article presents summarized information about the medicinal plants distributed on the territory of Strandzha mountain and the southern Black Sea coast, Bulgaria. According to literature data, 252 medicinal taxa are found on the territory of the two floristic regions, 218 of which are included in the Medicinal Plants Act. All species included in the list are characterized by: biological type, life form, and floral element. 59 plants have conservation status, representing 23.4% of the established species composition. According to the Red List of Higher Plants in Bulgaria and the Red Book of the Republic of Bulgaria, the following species are critically endangered (CR): Arbutus unedo L. and Sideritis syriaca L. Four Balkan endemics have been identified - Achillea clypeolata Sm., Opopanax chironius (L.) W. D. J. Koch subsp. bulgaricum (Velen.) Andreev, Sempervivum leucanthum Pančič, and Thymus longedentatus (Deg. & Urum.) Ronn.
Ecological effects of changes in the ignition angle of a gasoline engine on exhaust harmful gases emissions
(Plovdiv University Press "Paisii Hilendarski", 2025-05-28) Kanevski, Hristo; Lyubomirov, Slavi; Asenov, Stanislav; Shehova, Daniela
The present study reports the results from a real experiments of the impact of the ignition angle on the harmful exhaust gases emitted by a gasoline engine. The experiments were carried out with a BMW 318 gasoline engine equipped with a MegaSquirt 3 electronic control unit and TunerStudio MS software, as well as a Kane AUTOplus gas analyzer. The main emissions considered in the study include some greenhouse gases such as carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2) and unburned hydrocarbons (HC). The emissions of harmful gases were measured at 7 different engine speeds and 9 different ignition angles. The obtained data were used to compile regression equations that describe the relationship between the ignition angle, engine speed and the harmful emissions levels. The obtained results and derived equations offer specific recommendations for optimization of the ignition angle to minimize harmful emissions and improve the environmental performance of gasoline engines.
Paths to Sustainable Development: Ecological (R)evolution
(Plovdiv University Press "Paisii Hilendarski", 2025-05-23) Dakova, Megi; Nikolov, Bogdan; Getzova, Viktoriya
There is increasing talk about the need for mechanisms to reduce the pressure on our planet and the benefits of moving towards a green economy. In this regard, attention is focused on various packages of economic indicators, including several stages - from the creation of the product and its consumption to the need for waste management at the end of its life cycle. The circular economy is a model aimed at extending the life cycle of products. The aim of this study is to synthesize the main strategies and principles for sustainable waste management, the pros and cons of the circular economy, as well as to outline some potential paths for the transition to a circular economy. The relevance of the study is determined by modern trends in harmonizing policies and national measures for the management of packaging and packaging waste. Improving the quality of the environment by preventing and reducing the impact of packaging and packaging waste, preventing the production of packaging waste and promoting the reuse, recycling and other forms of recovery of packaging waste instead of its final disposal, thus contributing to the transition to a circular economy.
Laccase-Based Biosensors: Advancements and Applications in Environmental, Biochemical and Biomedical Sensing
(Plovdiv University Press "Paisii Hilendarski", 2025-04-23) Peshkov, Angel; Iliev, Ilia; Dimcheva, Nina
Laccase-based biosensors represent a promising and innovative area of biotechnology that harnesses the natural enzymatic properties of laccase, a copper-containing oxidative enzyme, for detecting various aromatic compounds. These biosensors have garnered attention due to their high specificity, sensitivity, and eco-friendly nature, making them suitable for multiple applications, including environmental monitoring, biomedical diagnostics, and industrial process control. This overview provides insights into the fundamental principles, advantages, and key applications of laccase-based biosensors, along with emerging trends and challenges in this rapidly advancing field.

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